For a century, two new viruses per year have spilled from their natural hosts into humans. The MERS, SARS, and 2009 H1N1 epidemics, and the HIV and coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemics, testify to their damage. Zoonotic viruses infect people directly most often when they handle live primates, bats, and other wildlife (or their meat) or indirectly from farm ani-mals such as chickens and pigs. The risks are higher than ever. Here, we assess the cost of monitoring and preventing disease spillover driven by the unprecedented loss and fragmentation of tropical forests and by the burgeoning wildlife trade. Currently, we invest relatively little toward preventing deforestation and regulating wildlife trade, despite well-researched plans that demonstrate a high return on their investment in limiting zoo-noses and conferring many other benefits.

Industrial and technological activities of the last two centuries have highly overused ecologies available in our biosphere in a way that their continuity and stability will endanger our life and civilization. After the collapse of the Cold War geopolitical structure, environmental destructions and hazards caused social and political activists to react. ecology has had a great effect on the security and policy literature due to its humane – environmental nature. As we know, ecology has different dimensions among which political ecology has helped researchers and political activists to reflect environmental destructions.

Abstract Bacteriophages are prokaryotic viruses, which multiply in bacteria and archaea. These viruses are important in transferring mobile genetic elements such as virulence and antimicrobial resistance genes to bacteria under a process called transduction. Although bacteriophages have long been addressed with their various medical applications, an exciting application of these viruses is linked to their infection treatment potential. Since antimicrobial resistance is rapidly extending in bacterial populations and no novel antibiotics have been introduced to the market in decades, alternative treatment protocols such as phage therapy must be further supported to secure the future of infection treatments. The present review molecularly introduces bacteriophages and their major applications...

Good governance is a common subject on development of countries. Economic, political and social authors and thinkers during two recent decades faced various comments on good governance. Any of them defines good governance with particular dimensions and characteristics.This paper aimed to briefly review the literature of this subject and provides definitions of governance using a fresh view point and presents a novel model of good governance.Using two concepts of "ecology "and "decision making" there fore, this paper focuses on three major characteristics, that’s "efficiency", "effectiveness" and "equilibrium of ecologic" This paper supposes good governance as a multi – face or plural concept including all aspects of authorizing and power. Each aspect of efficiency and effectiveness in this point is divided in to administrative, economic, political and social components which indicating the focus of this paper on pluralism of governance. Characteristics and Indices are also presented for any of these components.Plotting the two dimensional diagram aims to show balances of efficiency and effectiveness and studies various balances of countries ecological texture and categorizes them regarding to above diagram and analyzes the governance condition in four different states through diagram. It finally recommends strategies to hold balance between two aforesaid aspects owing to different status of governance in terms of balance line.This paper concludes that good governance is result of keeping balance between efficiency and effectiveness along with continuous development of them and moving towards the higher levels of balance line. In other words, development is result of balance of rising trend of efficiency and effectiveness.